Interfaith conflicts in Nepal: The struggles of including Islam and Christianity in a Hindu-dominated society

How to cite this journal: Author, Date of the post, WMO Conflict Insight, Title of the post, ISSN:
2628-6998, https://worldmediation.org/journal/

The villages of Narainapur Municipality are located in Nepal’s lowland Terai area. Sadly, the villages are characterized by an extreme level of poverty. Vast parts of the area have no access to electricity, and the streets are usually empty.[1]

In December 2016, the dusty streets were filled with parading people, celebrating Muslim communities who live in Hindu-dominated Nepal. They were waving flags with the Muslim declaration of faith, singing Islamic prayers, and celebrating their identity. Little did the pious paraders know about how their day was going to end.[2]

Previously, on the same day, a personal dispute between Muslim and Hindu youth nearby had escalated into a communal fight. When the demonstrators reached the location of the fight, Hindu groups blocked the streets. While Muslim leaders tried to approach the Hindu community to negotiate the dispute, the Hindu group attacked the parade with homemade weapons killing one Muslim and injuring many.[3]

Several things in life remain a mystery for many people due to a lack of exposure, the flow of information, and experience. In a culturally and religiously diverse setting like Nepal, especially insufficient exposure can be seen as an obstacle to harmony, progress, respect, and well-being. To date, interfaith dialogue receives little to no public attention and is not in the focus of the development assistance and peacebuilding landscape.[4]

The concept of interfaith dialogues stemmed about 125 years ago. Back then, the Indian Swami Vivekananda addressed the western world and highlighted the relevance of religious dialogue as a means to unite people who face divisions, lack of opportunities, or violence due to their faith. In Nepal, media personnel has little or no knowledge about the concept, which contributes to little coverage of the topic and no awareness of interfaith issues.[5]

A pluralistic society characterizes Nepal. Nepali people follow a wide range of religions, norms, and traditions, which shape their emotions and perceptions. So far, efforts towards leading these emotions towards peace, love, and tolerance mostly failed. In a post-conflict setting like Nepal, interfaith dialogues can play a leading role in promoting reconciliation, development, and long-lasting peace.[6]

While Nepal is a secular state, society and traditions are dominantly marked by the Hindu religion. Nevertheless, other religions, such as Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam, exist alongside each other. Although the country is often named as a positive example of people belonging to different religions peacefully living together as neighbors and friends, and religious holidays of all major faiths celebrated publicly, smaller conflicts between religions persist. Interfaith dialogue as a platform to resolve disputes is often underestimated in the context of Nepal.[7]

The paper will start with an overview of the religious landscape in Nepal, highlighting the situation of Hinduism, Christianity, and Islam, incorporating descriptions of inter-faith dialogue opportunities. In the following section, the author will explain the struggles of the inclusion of Islam and Christianity in the country, presenting examples for dialogue interventions. The paper ends with a discussion on findings and a personal conclusion. Throughout the paper, the author has described experiences from Nepal, where he lived and worked for several years.

The religious landscape of Nepal: Hinduism and Islam

Religion is a visibly prominent and universal component of society. Nevertheless, defining what faith means can be challenging.

Religion can be seen as a pervasive and influential part of life. Furthermore, it can be seen as a moral and ethical code of conduct. Religious manifestations are in and around one. Different religions share various characteristics.[8]

Currently, the religious demography in Nepal is structured as follows:

  • 6 percent Hindus,
  • 0 percent Buddhists,
  • 0 percent of Muslims,
  • 6 percent of folk religions, and
  • Less than 1 percent each: Christians, Jews, unaffiliated, and other faiths.[9]

Nepal’s public life is marked by the Hindu religion, which is extremely visible throughout the country. Temples, statues, symbols, and parades are commonly found all over Nepal. Hindu traditions are fixed parts of the daily lives of many people. Nepali Hindus worship different gods, such as the ancient Vedic God. Among others, Bramha, the creator, Shiva the destroyer, and Vishnu the preserver are worshiped in different ways and practices.[10] Charles Kimball argues that Hinduism is a glaring example of polytheism, including the belief that 330 million gods exist, but can also be monotheistic.[11] Rituals of Hinduism include cremation, which is based on the assumption that one’s soul cannot enter another body before the former body returned to its elements.[12] The body of literature deemed sacred by Hindu groups is diverse and appeared in its current form in different parts of India.[13]

Even though a clear Hindu domination persists, religious syncretism existed in Nepal for centuries. For example, Hindus in Nepal also worship Buddha, and some Buddhist groups in Nepal celebrate Hindu holidays. Additionally, Nepal has become a host country for religious refugees, such as Buddhists from Tibet, Rohingyas from Myanmar, and Ahmadis from Pakistan.

According to Peter Gill, high-caste Hindu leaders have traditionally controlled Nepal. Nevertheless, the 239-years old constitutional monarchy was abolished in 2008, and the country turned from a Hindu kingdom into a secular state. This change is, furthermore, reflected in Nepal’s new constitution, which went into force in 2015, shortly after a 7.8-magnitude earthquake hit the country. The new constitution resulted in protests, dominantly in the Terai region, where several ethnic groups, including Muslims, felt that the document did not address the traditional injustice they were facing.[14] According to Klemen Furman, religious conflicts often have their origin, not in religious values, but result from the misuse of religion as a tool of political power.[15]

In several discussions on the new constitution with the people of Nepal, the author of this paper encountered viewpoints against the establishment of a secular state, which was a significant part of the constitution. While some people link a Hindu state with the past or neighboring India, other people are firmly in favor of having Nepal as an official Hindu country. For many, Hinduism is not just religion and culture, but a big part of their identity. Nationalism among strict Hindu groups is on the rise.

Islam in Nepal

Islam is considered one of the major religions, alongside Christianity, Hinduism, Judaism, and Buddhism.[16] Islam is a monotheistic religion, meaning only one God exists.[17] The central sacred text, the eternal word of God in Islam, is the Qur’an.[18]

In 2017, as described in the introduction, Muslim-targeted violence in Nepal shocked the country. Despite recent progress in the promotion of the pluralism of religions, many Muslim communities in Nepal remain being neglected in politics, marginalized, and discriminated against. As a result of the anti-Muslim incident in villages of Narainapur, thousands of Muslims gathered in a city nearby to hold funeral rituals and thereby created attention towards the marginalization of Muslim groups in Nepal. While the Government of Nepal rewarded benefits to the families of the injured and killed Muslim demonstrators, Muslims feared that the incident could repeat in an even more severe manner.[19]

According to Gill, despite progress, Muslims remain poor and often marginalized in Nepal. While the country seemingly accepts its diversity, Muslims continue to struggle to become accepted members of Nepali society.

Muhammad Siddique writes that, ethnically, Muslims in Nepal have four origins: Indians, Tibetans, Nepalese as well as Kashmiri.[20] Muslim communities, mostly Sunni, lived in Nepal for centuries, many of them invited and welcomed by former Hindu rulers. Ninety-five percent of Nepal’s Muslim population lives in the southern part of the country, most of them work as farmers. As citizens of Nepal were hierarchically ranked based on their caste, Muslims were positioned at the bottom of the hierarchy, just above the lowest caste, the Dalits. Nevertheless, during the democratic transition phase in the 1950s, public worship became easier for different religions. Today, Muslims still rank low on Nepal’s Human Development Index, especially compared to Hindu communities.[21]

Salif Khalid highlights that Muslims in Nepal face severe educational disadvantages. For instance, only 26 percent of Muslim women in Nepal are literate, while the national average for women is 55 percent.[22] Prakriti Kandel claims that Muslim-affiliated schools in Nepal still receive less attention and support than government-run schools.[23]

Since the author of this paper lived in Kathmandu, it is evident to him that Muslims are a marginalized minority in the country. Even though there are few mosques in the capital city, the level of information and prejudice against Muslims remain in society. In the past, attacks targeted Muslim institutions in Kathmandu, including mosques and offices of Arabic airlines, such as from Qatar, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia. While a significant part of Nepal’s workforce goes abroad, mostly to the Middle East, information and exposure are low. Even abroad, Nepalis mostly live among their people.

At times of crisis, such as during the current Covid-19 pandemic, some groups suspect that Indian Muslims residing in Nepal’s southern regions are pushed back to neighboring India.[24] Aditi Aryal writes that Islamophobia is primarily on the rise during the pandemic. Suspicion and paranoia have hiked, mostly influenced by anti-Muslim sentiments in India.[25] Moreover, Islamophobia has sparked due to Muslim people in Nepal who were infected with Covid-19.[26]

Christianity in Nepal

Kimbal argues that Christianity is also a monotheistic religion.[27] The most sacred text in Christianity is the Bible.[28]

When one searches for Christianity in Nepal through the online platform Google, one will mainly find negative articles, associated with conversion.

According to Eric Metaxas, Christianity is on the rise in Nepal, but tensions come along. In 1951, Nepal’s census showed that, back then, zero Christians officially lived in the country. Ten years later, the number grew to 458. In 1991, officially, 102,000 Christians were living in Nepal. Considering that in 2011 already 375,000 Christians were based in Nepal, the number is growing significantly. Estimations show that more than 2.3 million Nepali people are Christians, almost 10 percent of the entire population.

Nepal’s constitution, protecting the Hindu identity, states that no one is allowed to convert a person from one religion to another. Regardless, many Nepali people are turning to Christianity. Theorists suppose that converting is still happening as the law is difficult to enforce.[29] Nevertheless, many Christians in Nepal fear that the constitution of the country, which declared the nation to be secular, is threatening religious freedom as well as the entire Christian community.[30]

Article 26 of the constitution states:

No person shall… convert another person from one religion to another or [perform] any act or conduct that may jeopardize [another’s] religion.[31]

Pete Pattison writes that Christian missionaries who work throughout the country are often criticized. Many people claim that missionaries offer money and gifts as motivational factors to convert to Christianity, instead of focusing on charity work which they claim to do. One can, therefore, argue that Christian missionaries make use of the poverty and need of Nepal’s marginalized groups. For example, the low-caste discriminated Dalits are among the groups who convert to Christianity the most.[32]

While the author of this paper was living in Nepal, he had the chance to discuss Christianity with different Nepali Christians. He often heard that they feel left behind in many ways. For example, many Christians face threats from neighbors and feel that the Government of Nepal is not doing enough to protect the rights of Christian minorities. Nevertheless, they also mentioned that they appreciate the opportunity to celebrate Christian holidays publicly. Furthermore, the author was frequently approached in the streets by Christian people who thought that he, being a white German male, must be interested in joining the Nepali Christian Church and invited him to their events and prayer.

Interfaith Dialogue: Methods and Approaches

Even though different communities in Nepal practice different faiths, particular sentiments, traditions, and perceptions are similar. Similarities need to be formulated and adopted as guidance tools for the journey towards humanity. Interfaith dialogue can serve as a platform in which arguments are discussed to come to an acceptable conclusion. Thus, interreligious dialogue brings the chance of identifying shared virtues among the different religious groups in Nepal as well as bringing them closer.

According to Narendra Pande, the concept and principles of interfaith have not yet started to spread in Nepal effectively. While interfaith dialogue refers to positive interactions and cooperation between people of different faiths, one needs to understand that the aim of interreligious dialogue is not to convert other parties. Moreover, interfaith dialogue neither aims to win a theological debate nor to critique another religion.[33]

The Struggles for Inclusion

Anti-Islamic Attitudes in Nepal

In 2012, the Government of Nepal established a Muslim Commission to conduct research and provide advice on Muslim-oriented policies in the country. However, Pande claims that the role of the Commission is limited, and the inclusion processes of Muslims remain slow. Moreover, Muslims are often lumped together with the ethnic group of the Madhesi, mostly living in the Terai. Muslims feel that the politically active ethnic group of the Madhesi does not adequately represent their interests.

When the new constitution came into place in 2015, parts of the Madhesis started to protest, which escalated quickly. As a result, several people, half of them police personnel, were killed. Thus, India imposed an unofficial border blockade, justifying this step with security concerns. Many see the border blockade as a means to support the Madhesi’s demands. The blockade put an embargo on the flow of crucial goods, including food, petrol, cooking gas, medicine, and humanitarian. These events unfolded in Muslims becoming disillusioned with the Madhesis, feeling that they have failed to include Muslims in leadership roles.[34]

From the author’s experience, many people in Nepal believe that being Hindu is a crucial part of the traditional Nepali identity. Thus, voices are, occasionally, raised that Muslims cannot be Nepali. Therefore, Muslim communities mostly live among themselves. Nevertheless, the younger generation is more and more open to other religions. Different famous Nepali Muslim celebrities speak up for their integration into society and often receive positive feedback for their advocacy efforts.

While human rights activists are active in Nepal on many issues, the challenges of religious minorities are often not addressed. According to Jean-Paul Marthoz and Jospeh Saunder, human rights movements should not neglect religious issues and scale up efforts against anti-Muslim sentiments.[35] Religious pluralism, a modern concept that can be seen as an outcome of secularization, needs to be ensured.[36]

Interfaith Dialogue Initiatives

According to David R. Smock, peacebuilding activities can have various forms, such as interfaith dialogues. Interreligious dialogues have the potential to transform different societies into harmonious groups.[37]

The processes can be structured in four phases. In the first phase, participants express their interest in dialogues and explore similarities.[38] In the second phase, participants start, more and more, to identify differences among groups and reveal stereotypes.[39] In the third phase, participants explore values and address questions on contradictions in religious practices.[40] Moreover, in the fourth and last phase, participants often realize the benefits and limitations of interfaith dialogue. As a result of the dialogue, parties, feel more empowered, have an increased understanding, and connect better with groups of different faiths.[41]

The Christian non-governmental organization, NGO, United Mission to Nepal, UMN operates throughout Nepal and supports interfaith dialogues.

As a part of interfaith dialogue efforts, UMN provides training intending to strengthen skills to better advocate for interreligious peace. Through these training sessions, peace actors get the knowledge they need to organize interfaith dialogue sessions and support dialogue processes. Skills required include cultural and religious sensitivity, understanding of ethnic groups in Nepal, as well as communication.[42]

While the author of this paper was working for different NGOs and the United Nations in Nepal, he never personally encountered an interfaith dialogue-focused development project. Although many projects work towards the inclusion of minorities, Christianity, and Islam as discriminating factors hardly play a role. Despite many national and international NGOs in Nepal operate using their religious profile in projects, the author never encountered an international NGO focusing on the issue. Discussions with other development practitioners and diplomats confirmed his viewpoint.

Discussion

The topic of anti-Muslim sentiments still receives little to no recognition and attention from the media. Thus, training journalists, media personnel, writers, and TV personalities in interfaith dialogue should become a more urging priority. While radio is the mostly-spread and accessible tool for media in Nepal, especially for rural communities, radio shows on the topic, for example, supported by the United Nations, might be a powerful tool to overcome obstacles for religious minorities.

When the new constitution was implemented in 2015, many Muslims raised their voices against the implementation of a secular state. Surprisingly, many Muslims feel that a Hindu nation is more secure for them. Moreover, many Muslims believe that a secular state system will bring additional problems to the country’s religious minorities, as it can be seen as a break between longstanding unity among Hindus and Muslims. For many, a secular identity is not relevant.

Due to missionary practices that are often received unethical, such as offering money, Christians are often put in a difficult spot in Nepal. As interfaith dialogue does not have the aim to convert the other party, the image of Christianity in Nepal needs to improve before communities would have the trust required to participate in dialogue processes. Still, many foreign missionaries are arrested and deported from Nepal due to their doing in different parts of the country.

While discrimination against Christian and Muslim minorities persists in the country, little to no attention is given by government efforts and NGOs. From the author’s viewpoint, religion is a cross-cutting issue, and interfaith dialogue needs to be included as a critical component in the schedule of various initiatives. Therefore, awareness of the problem needs to be raised among NGO staff and the general society urgently.

Conclusion

Nepal is often highlighted as a positive example where many religions live peacefully together. However, tensions against religious minorities remain.

Interfaith dialogue provides a platform for different religious groups to come together to negotiate faith-based issues and to increase mutual understanding and acceptance. However, this does not include converting the other party to another religion.

Still, things could be worse for Nepal’s Muslim communities. For example, there are no dominant political parties that openly attack the rights of Muslims. Especially when looking at Nepal’s neighboring country of India, where Muslims are frequently attacked, and anti-Muslim sentiments are on the rise, Nepal’s Muslim community feel often more protected.

On the contrary, Christianity is often perceived negatively due to unethical missionary practices. Thus, by utilizing the potential of interfaith dialogue, the image of Christianity can be improved to promote harmony

Working in mediation and conflict resolution often means dealing with faith-based conflicts and discrimination. The complexity, as well as the potential of interfaith dialogue, have to be understood and applied accordingly. It is crucial, particularly in the setting of Nepal. As of now, the opportunities that this tool can provide towards peacebuilding and reconciliation have not been sufficiently utilized in the Himalayan nation of Nepal.

Bibliography:

“18 Nepali Muslims Who Attended Nizamuddin Congregation in Delhi, Quarantined in Nepal,” 2020. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/18-nepali-muslims-who-attended-nizamuddin-congregation-in-delhi-quarantined-in-nepal/article31227593.ece.

Aryal, Aditi. “A Worrying Rise in Islamophobia Ever since a Number of Muslim Men Were Diagnosed with Covid-19,” 2020. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://kathmandupost.com/national/2020/04/21/a-worrying-rise-in-islamophobia-ever-since-a-number-of-muslim-men-were-diagnosed-with-covid-19.

Furman, Klemen. Interfaith Dialogue Documentary, 2015. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=INS4FVtEHgU&feature=emb_title.

Gill, Peter. “As Nepal Strives to Become More Inclusive, Are Muslims Being Left Behind?,” 2018. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://html5-player.libsyn.com/embed/episode/id/6218180/height/50/width/640/theme/standard/autonext/no/thumbnail/yes/autoplay/no/preload/no/no_addthis/no/direction/backward/.

Kandel, Prakriti. “Nepali Muslims on the Margins,” 2019. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/nepali-muslims-on-the-margins/.

Khalid, Salif. “The Muslims of Nepal: Coming out of the Shadows,” 2016. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2016/05/muslims-nepal-coming-shadows-160518133039988.html.

Kimball, Charles. Comparative Religion: Course Guidebook. Chantilly, United States of America: The Great Courses, 2008.

Marthoz, Jean-Paul, and Joseph Saunders. “Religion and the Human Rights Movement,” n.d. Accessed May 20, 2020. /dl/kJ32m1FCOb.

Metaxas, Eric. “Christianity, Religious Tensions on the Rise in Nepal, “ 2016. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.cnsnews.com/commentary/eric-metaxas/christianity-religious-tensions-rise-nepal.

Nepal Tourism Board. “Culture of Nepal,” n.d. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.welcomenepal.com/plan-your-trip/culture.html.

Oldmeadow, Harry. Crossing Religious Frontiers: Studies in Comparative Religion. Bloomington, United States of America: World Wisdom, 2010.

Outlook India. “Movement of Corona Suspects from Nepal to India,” 2020. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.outlookindia.com/newsscroll/movement-of-corona-suspects-from-nepal-to-india-intel/1798009.

Pande, Narendra. “Interfaith Dialogue: For Religious Tolerance,” 2020. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://thehimalayantimes.com/opinion/interfaith-dialogue-for-religious-tolerance/.

Pattisson, Pete. “‘They Use ​Money to Promote Christianity’: Nepal’s Battle for Souls,” 2017. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/aug/15/they-use-money-to-promote-christianity-nepal-battle-for-souls.

Persecution.org. “New Challenges to Christianity’s Growth in Nepal,” 2020. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.persecution.org/2020/01/02/new-challenges-christianitys-growth-nepal/.

Pew Research Center. “Religions in Nepal,” 2020. Accessed May 20, 2020. http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/nepal#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020&region_name=All%20Countries&restrictions_year=2016.

Siddique, Muhammad. “Muslim Population in the Kingdom of Nepal: Some Outstanding Features.” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 2001, 333–45.

Smock, David R. Interfaith Dialogue and Peacebuilding. Washington DC, United States of America: United States Institute of Peace, 2002.

United Mission to Nepal. “Supporting Interfaith Dialogues,” 2018. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.umn.org.np:443/news/771.

World Watch Monitor. “Nepal.” World Watch Monitor, n.d. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.worldwatchmonitor.org/countries/nepal/.

[1] Peter Gill, “As Nepal Strives to Become More Inclusive, Are Muslims Being Left Behind?,” 2018. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://html5-player.libsyn.com/embed/episode/id/6218180/height/50/width/640/theme/standard/autonext/no/thumbnail/yes/autoplay/no/preload/no/no_addthis/no/direction/backward/.

[2] Gill, “As Nepal Strives to Become More Inclusive, Are Muslims Being Left Behind?”

[3] Ibid.

[4] Narendra Pande, “Interfaith Dialogue: For Religious Tolerance,” 2020. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://thehimalayantimes.com/opinion/interfaith-dialogue-for-religious-tolerance/.

[5] Pande, “Interfaith Dialogue: For Religious Tolerance.”

[6] Ibid.

[7] [7] Pande, “Interfaith Dialogue: For Religious Tolerance.”

[8] Charles Kimball, Comparative Religion: Course Guidebook (Chantilly, United States of America: The Great Courses, 2008), 4-5.

[9] Pew Research Center, “Religions in Nepal,” 2020. Accessed May 20, 2020. http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/nepal#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020&region_name=All%20Countries&restrictions_year=2016.

[10] Nepal Tourism Board, “Culture of Nepal,” n.d. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.welcomenepal.com/plan-your-trip/culture.html.

[11] Charles Kimball, Comparative Religion: Course Guidebook (Chantilly, United States of America: The Great Courses, 2008), 46.

[12] Charles Kimball, Comparative Religion: Course Guidebook, 50.

[13] Ibid., 41.

[14] Gill, “As Nepal Strives to Become More Inclusive, Are Muslims Being Left Behind?”

[15] Klemen Furman, Interfaith Dialogue Documentary, 2015. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=INS4FVtEHgU&feature=emb_title.

[16] Kimball, Comparative Religion: Course Guidebook, 5.

[17] Ibid., 8.

[18] Ibid., 21.

[19] Gill, “As Nepal Strives to Become More Inclusive, Are Muslims Being Left Behind?”

[20] Muhammad Siddique, “Muslim Population in the Kingdom of Nepal: Some Outstanding Features,” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 2001, 33–45.

[21] Ibid., 33-45.

[22] Salif Khalid, “The Muslims of Nepal: Coming out of the Shadows,” 2016. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2016/05/muslims-nepal-coming-shadows-160518133039988.html.

[23] Prakriti Kandel, “Nepali Muslims on the Margins,” 2019. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.nepalitimes.com/banner/nepali-muslims-on-the-margins.

[24] Outlook India, “Movement of Corona Suspects from Nepal to India,” 2020. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.outlookindia.com/newsscroll/movement-of-corona-suspects-from-nepal-to-india-intel/1798009.

[25] Aditi Aryal, “A Worrying Rise in Islamophobia Ever since a Number of Muslim Men Were Diagnosed with Covid-19,” 2020. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://kathmandupost.com/national/2020/04/21/a-worrying-rise-in-islamophobia-ever-since-a-number-of-muslim-men-were-diagnosed-with-covid-19.

[26] “18 Nepali Muslims Who Attended Nizamuddin Congregation in Delhi, Quarantined in Nepal,” 2020. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/18-nepali-muslims-who-attended-nizamuddin-congregation-in-delhi-quarantined-in-nepal/article31227593.ece.

[27] Kimball, Comparative Religion: Course Guidebook, 45.

[28] Ibid., 38.

[29] Eric Metaxas, “Christianity, Religious Tensions on the Rise in Nepal,” 2016. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.cnsnews.com/commentary/eric-metaxas/christianity-religious-tensions-rise-nepal.

[30] World Watch Monitor, “Nepal,” World Watch Monitor, n.d. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.worldwatchmonitor.org/countries/nepal.

[31] Persecution.org, “New Challenges to Christianity’s Growth in Nepal,” 2020. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.persecution.org/2020/01/02/new-challenges-christianitys-growth-nepal.

[32] Pete Pattisson, “‘They Use ​Money to Promote Christianity’: Nepal’s Battle for Souls,” 2017. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017/aug/15/they-use-money-to-promote-christianity-nepal-battle-for-souls.

[33] Pande, “Interfaith Dialogue.”

[34] Gill, “As Nepal Strives to Become More Inclusive, Are Muslims Being Left Behind?”

[35] Jean-Paul Marthoz and Joseph Saunders, “Religion and the Human Rights Movement,” n.d.. Accessed May 20, 2020. /dl/kJ32m1FCOb, 2.

[36] Harry Oldmeadow, Crossing Religious Frontiers: Studies in Comparative Religion (Bloomington, United States of America: World Wisdom, 2010), 33.

[37] David R. Smock, Interfaith Dialogue and Peacebuilding (Washington DC, United States of America: United States Institute of Peace, 2002), 73.

[38] Smock, Interfaith Dialogue and Peacebuilding, 27.

[39] Ibid., 27-28.

[40] Ibid., 28.

[41] Ibid., 28-29.

[42] United Mission to Nepal, “Supporting Interfaith Dialogues,” 2018. Accessed May 20, 2020. https://www.umn.org.np:443/news/771.

Leave a Reply